LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER 14--WRITING LONG REPORTS

REPORT PRODUCTION

• Report Production varies, depending on the size and nature of the organization:
  • Collaborative effort common in large companies.
  • Solo approach more common in small companies.
• Collaborative report writing:
  • Several authors write as team.
  • Editor assembles pieces.
  • Secretarial staff and art department handle format and illustrations.
• Computer simplifies preparation process;
  • Handles formatting automatically.
  • Checks spelling and readability.
  • Creates artwork.
• A realistic schedule for putting a draft into final form:
  • Typing time: 8 pages per hour.
  • Editing/proofreading time: 15 minutes per page.
  • Artwork time: 1 hour per exhibit (hand-drawn).
  • Review time: as much as possible.
• After submitting a report, solicit feedback so that you can learn from the reader's responses.

REPORT PRODUCTION

• Regardless of length, organizational approach, or intended audience, formal reports use manuscript format and a relatively impersonal tone.
• Length determines the number of components in a formal report; several elements may be combined in shorter reports.
• A formal report has three categories of elements:
  1. Prefatory parts
  2. Text
  3. Supplementary parts
• Prefatory parts, which are usually prepared last, may include
  • Cover
  • Title fly
  • Title page
  • Letter of authorization
  • Letter of acceptance
  • Letter of transmittal
  • Table of contents
  • List of illustrations
  • Synopsis or executive summary
• The cover should be
  • Sturdy, appropriate, and attractive
  • Labeled with title, writer's name, and date
• The title of a formal report should be succinct but specific (who, what, when, where, why, and how)
• The title fly, an optional element, is blank except for the title.
• The title page, which may serve as a cover, includes
  • Title of report
  • Name, title, and address of person/organization that authorized report (reader)
  • Name, title, and address of person/organization that prepared report
  • Submission date.
• The letter of authorization and letter of acceptance are optional but may be included "for the record"; they may be in memo or letter format, depending on whether report is internal or external.
  • Letter of authorization follows direct-request plan; gives instructions for assignment.
  • Letter of acceptance follows good-news plan; confirms arrangements for assignment.
• The letter (memo) of transmittal
  • "Hands" the document to the reader
  • Precedes the table of contents
  • May appear in only selected copies
  • Follows routine, good-news plan
  • Specifies methods, scope, and limitations
  • Highlights important points
  • Provides helpful background information
  • Acknowledges contributors
  • May take the place of a synopsis
• The table of contents
  • Gives readers an overview of the report's structure.
  • May list all headings or only the top two or three levels of headings.
  • Gives the page number where each heading appears.
  • Mirrors the wording of the headings precisely.
  • Lists all prefatory parts following the table of contents and all supplementary parts.
  • May list the visual aids if the number of them is limited.
• The list of illustrations
  • Gives titles and page numbers of illustrations.
  • May be typed on the same page as the table of contents or be presented on the next page.
• All visual aids may be listed together as exhibits, or tables and figures may be listed separately.
• The synopsis
  • Is a one-page (ore less) overview of the main points.
  • Is common in long technical/academic reports.
  • May be distributed separately from the report.
  • May be informative or descriptive, depending on style of text.
• The executive summary
  • Is more frequently used in business reports than the synopsis is.
  • Is longer and more fully developed than the synopsis.
  • Provides a "mini" report for readers who don't want to read the entire text.
  • May contain headings, transitions, and visual aids.
  • Is organized like the text, using direct or indirect order depending on the audience's attitude.
  • Contains enough detail for the reader to decide about the issues covered without reading further.
• The length of the report determines the need for a synopsis or executive summary:
  • Most useful in documents over 30 pages.
  • Often omitted or combined with letter of transmittal in shorter documents.
• The text of the report includes the following:
  • Introduction
  • Body
  • Summary
  • Conclusions
  • Recommendations
  • Notes
• The format of the report, which helps readers understand the message, may be dictated by company policy.
• Several devices help focus attention on major points in the text:
  • Headings, which facilitate the skimming process, should be emphasized with typography and white space.
  • Visual aids dramatize key points.
  • Previews and section summaries help orient the reader.
• The introduction
  • Puts the report in perspective.
  • Indicates purpose.
  • Previews the contents.
  • Establishes the tone.
• The introduction, which varies in length from a paragraph or two to several pages, may discuss
  • Authorization for the report.
  • The problem studied and the purpose of the report.
  • Scope.
  • Background.
  • Sources and methods.
  • Definitions.
  • Limitations.
  • Report organization.
• The introduction should be prepared to supplement the prefatory parts, so that unnecessary duplication of information is avoided.
• The body of the report
  • Contains major sections or chapters.
  • Should be long enough to adequately support your position and respond to the reader's needs.
  • May or may not include conclusions.
• The final section "wrapping up" the text of the report may include one or more of the following:
  • Summary: key findings paraphrased.
  • Conclusions: writer's analysis of what findings mean.
  • Recommendations: writer's opinion of what should be done.
• The length of the final section of the text depends on how the rest of the report is structured:
  • If the report uses direct order, the final section may be a fairly brief recapitulation.
  • If the reports uses indirect order, the final section tends to be longer and more detailed.
• The summary, conclusions, and recommendations may be combined or listed separately for added emphasis.
• Recommendations, which are especially important in reports intended to lead to action,
  • spell out what should happen next.
  • explain difficulties.
  • provide a schedule.
  • assign responsibilities.
• Reference notes satisfy your moral and legal obligation to credit sources of information and help establish your credibility.
• In a business report, excessive footnotes hamper communication; simply mentioning sources in the text is often an acceptable alternative.
• Let company tradition be your guide when deciding on the number and treatment of reference notes.
• Types of visual aids:
  • Tables
  • Line and surface charts
  • Bar charts
  • Pie charts
  • Flow charts and organization charts
  • Maps
  • Drawings, diagrams, and photographs
• Tables are good for presenting detailed, specific information; they should be designed for accuracy, consistency, and convenience.
• Parts of a table:
  • Vertical columns, identified with column heads (include units of measure).
  • Horizontal columns, identified with line heads.
• Variables in constructing tables:
  • Length and complexity (simplify for slide presentations)
  • Placement (on separate page with title or embedded in text as text table)
  • Content (word table or numerical table)
• Line and surface charts are used to illustrate trends over time or to plot the interaction of two variables.
• In line and surface charts, the vertical axis shows amount and the horizontal axis shows time (in a trend chart) or another variable; both axes typically begin at zero and are marked in standard increments, but treatment can vary depending on the nature of the data.
• Several lines can be plotted on the same chart to compare the behavior of different items.
• Surface charts are line charts with a cumulative effect; they show trends in composition of a whole over time.
• The scale of the axes affects the slope of the line and thereby the apparent significance of the results; choose a scale that gives a realistic picture.
• Bar charts, which consist of one or more bars representing quantities, are useful for four purposes:
  • To compare the size of several items at one time.
  • To show changes in one item over time.
  • To indicate the composition of several items over time.
  • To show the relative size of components of a whole.
• Variations in bar charts:
  • Vertical or horizontal alignment
  • Multiple bars or single bar
  • Negative or positive quantities
  • Pictograms (using lines of symbols) instead of bars
• Pie charts are useful for showing the composition of a whole.
• Design considerations for pie charts:
  • Limit number of slices to seven.
  • Position largest or most important slice starting at 12 o'clock and arrange the rest clockwise in descending order.
  • Use shading and color to differentiate slices.
  • Label all segments.
  • Be sure segments add up to 100 percent.
• Flow charts and organization charts are useful for showing physical or conceptual relationships:
  • Flow charts illustrate processes, procedures, and relationships using pictorial symbols or geometric shapes.
  • Organization charts illustrate positions, units, or functions of an organization.
• Maps are useful for showing any geographically based information; blank maps can be obtained at office supply stores.
• Drawings, diagrams, and photographs are useful for showing how something looks, especially in technical reports:
  • Drawings and diagrams range from hand-drawn sketches to computer-generated images.
  • Photographs are becoming more common with improvements in photocopying machines.
• The style of a visual aid should be appropriate for the occasion; save elaborate graphics for major messages.
• How to introduce visual aids in the text:
  • Refer to visual aids by number before they appear.
  • Explain importance of exhibit, emphasizing main point.
  • Do not repeat details of exhibit in the text.
• How to number visual aids:
  • Number tables and figures separately (Table X, Figure X), or call all visual aids exhibits and number consecutively.
  • Number visual aids by chapter or consecutively throughout the document.
• Place a visual aid as close as possible to the paragraph it illustrates:
  • On the same page if practical.
  • On a separate page immediately after the reference.
  • Clustered with other exhibits at the end of the report.
• Use titles and captions that convey a complete message independently of the text; some readers will skim the text and rely primarily on the visual aids:
  • Thorough titles and captions are especially important if exhibits are widely separated from related text.
  • Captions, which are generally phrased as complete sentences, are optional; they are most useful when text explanations are thin.
  • Together, title, labels, and caption should cover who, what, why, where, when, and how.
  • Type of title (descriptive or informative) should match style of headings used in text.
  • Format of titles and captions should be consistent throughout the document.
• Supplementary parts follow the text and include
  • Appendixes
  • Bibliography
  • Index
• Appendixes contain relevant material that is too detailed to present in the text, such as sample questionnaires, forms, computer printouts, statistical formulas, glossary of terms (may be a separate section), and visual aids (if not included in the text).
• Each type of material requires a separate appendix.
• Each appendix should be referenced in the text and listed in the table of contents.
• Bibliography: list of sources used in preparing the report.
• Index: alphabetical listing of names, places, and subjects mentioned in the report (rarely included in unpublished reports).

COMPONENTS OF A FORMAL PROPOSAL

• The format of formal proposals is similar in most respects to that of other formal reports.
• Three prefatory parts in a proposal are handled somewhat differently:
  • Copy of RFP (or a portion of it) replaces letter of authorization.
  • Letter of transmittal in a solicited proposal uses good-news pattern; letter of transmittal in an unsolicited proposal uses persuasive pattern.
  • Synopsis or executive summary is generally omitted; introduction or letter of transmittal takes its place.
• The text of the proposal persuades the client to grant the contract and explains the terms of the contract.
• The organization of a solicited proposal is governed by the RFP because having all proposals organized alike facilitates comparison of competing bids, especially when evaluation is handled by a team.
• Typical subheads in the introduction to a proposal include the following:
  • Background or statement of problem: review of client's situation.
  • Overview of the approach: the key selling points.
  • Scope (or limitations): what you will or will not do.
  • Report organization.
• The body of the proposal should cover four areas:
  • Proposed approach.
  • Work plan.
  • Qualifications to perform work.
  • Costs.
• The section describing the proposed approach (also called technical proposal, research design, issues for analysis, or work statement) should provide the following:
  • Description of what you have to offer.
  • Benefits and advantages of your approach
• The work plan, which tells how you will accomplish the work, should cover the following:
  • Steps to be taken and their timing.
  • Methods and resources to be used.
  • Individuals who will be responsible.
• A work plan is contractually binding, so it must be realistic.
• The statement of qualifications covers experience with similar contracts, personnel, and facilities.
• The cost section
  • is a detailed breakdown of such factors as labor, materials, and overhead.
  • often determines whether you win or lose the job.
  • is neither too high nor too low.
  • is well documented.
• The summary is a brief recapitulation of your approach, emphasizing benefits to the reader.

Last Update: 3/07/01
Web Author: Angie Chittick
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